Arts Dissertation - Egon Schiele - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 22 Words: 6623 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Art Essay Did you like this example? Was Egon Schiele ahead of his time or just in touch with it? A master of expressionism or practising pornographer and paedophile? What was the driving force behind his most memorable images; those being his nudes and self portraits? Looking at economic, social, personal influences, was he milking the times and environment for self gain or was he a hormone raging self absorbed youngster finding himself? Introduction Expressionism is described in typically polemic terms in the preface for the 1912 exhibition in Cologne, featuring new artists of this genre. In it, it says: the exhibition is intended to offer a general view of the newest movement in painting, which has succeeded atmospheric naturalism and the impressionist rendering of motion, and which strives to offer a simplification and intensification in the mode of expression, after new rhythms and new uses of colour and a decorative or monumental configuration a general view of that movement which has been described as expressionism. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Arts Dissertation Egon Schiele" essay for you Create order Schiele certainly fulfilled the loose terminologies expressed above, as a great deal of the subject matter he explored, primarily his nudes and his self-portraits, were concerned with the constant need to redefine and explore different ways of expressing these themes; a simplification and intensification in the mode of expression. At times, Schiele reduces the broad sentiments of Impressionism to a single streak; he cuts out all that is unnecessary, reducing his backgrounds to a simple wash of colour, and thus focuses on his primary interest, that of the human subject. Schiele was also extremely concerned with the notion of self in his work; he is frequently cited in critical work as a narcissist and, with over 100 self portraits to his name, each of which appear to be concerned with showing himself in various, often contradictory ways, this would appear to be true. But, beyond simple glorification of the self, Schiele seems to be doing something else in his self-portraiture. By picturing himself in such a varied and at times contradictory way, Schiele in turn questions his own authenticity, and attempts to align himself with that great canon of artist in society, as a contemporary Promethean or Christ-like figure. Allegory, unmasking, the presentation of a personable image, and close scrutiny of body language as influenced by the psyche, all met most palpably where Schieles eye looked most searchingly in his self-portraits, his odyssey through the vast lands of the self. His reflections on and of himself filled a great hall of mirrors where he performed a pantomime of the self unparalleled in twentieth century art. Indeed, the ambiguity of Schiele as regards himself is a dense and complex subject, which regards both truth, and a more subjective appraisal of art in Viennese society during the time in which Schiele was painting. Schiele was also concerned with breaking down and fundamentally opposing the traditions of Viennese culture and art which, at the time, were largely very conservative in opinion. In his art, Schiele would strike out at the culture that celebrated Biedermeier art and the slavish reproduction of classical works that he was taught at Viennas Academie der Bildunden Kunste (Viennas Academy of Fine Art), which he was admitted to on the grounds of his exceptional talent as a draughtsman. Most prominently, he would break these rules, and was thus ahead of his times with his extremely controversial oeuvre, which broke from these schools almost completely, both stylistically and in terms of the subject matter that they conveyed. But it is extremely difficult, if not impossible when considering any artist to extricate him / her from the times in which he / she was born. An artist is inevitably bound to the world around him / her, and thus, it is important to consider the economic, social and cultural trends that were prevalent at the time. Schiele was part of the expressionist movement which immediately set itself up against the heralded principals of art in Vienna, by setting up its own artist-led business entities, using the work and the life of Klimt as an example. I will expand upon the layered history that led up to Viennese expressionism, and hope to extrapolate the extent to which Schiele was paving the way for a new generation of artists. Schieles art was especially controversial in its subject matter. In his early work especially, unflinching portraits were painted that not only showed Schiele in uncompromising positions, but also subjects such as proletariat children, who were invariably portrayed naked, and painted with a grotesque and sickly eroticism that draws you unerringly into these taboo areas. Whether Schiele was deliberately trying to shock and provoke the modesties of the Viennese public, or whether he was trying to uncover a more universal, spiritual or sexual truth is subject to debate. Overall, in this essay, I will discuss how the history of Vienna impacted upon the work of Schiele, looking at the cultural, social and economic impact of Schiele. I will also look at how Schiele uses the self-portrait, especially how he chooses to either promote, or at least define the prevalent role of expressionist artist in his work. Then I will look at how the abundance of these controversial self-portraits, along with innumerable photographs of Schiele posing, in turn makes Schieles identity in his work more ambiguous. Then I will look at the more pornographic side of Schiele, and question how Schiele, deeply embedded in the cultural and moral codes of the time, reacted entirely against them and established his own, art of ugliness. History Of Viennese Expressionism Fredrick Raphael, in his preface to Dream Story by Arthur Schnitzler, suggests something about the Viennese psyche; he says that: In 1866, Bismarcks Prussia destroyed Austro-Hungarys bravely incompetent army at Sadowa. The effect of that defeat on the Viennese psyche cannot be exactly assessed. Austria had already suffered preliminary humiliation by the French, under Louis-Napoleon, but Sadowa confirmed that she would never again be a major player in the worlds game. Yet conscious acceptance of Austrias vanished supremacy was repressed by the brilliance and brio of its social and artistic life. Who can be surprised that Adlers discovery of the inferiority complex, and of compensating assertiveness, was made in a society traumatized by dazzling decline? It was as if the city which spawned Arthur Schinitzler and Sigmund Freud feared to awake from its tuneful dreams to prosaic reality. Indeed, the times in which Egon Schiele was making his mark on the Viennese establishment was a time where the Viennese art community were at their most conservative, or most susceptible to lapsing into these tuneful dreams. Schieles self-imposed mission, it seemed, was to violently shake these people into a state of consciousness. But that isnt to say that Schiele existed entirely in a vacuum, living entirely by his own rules. Comini stresses that: The content of Schieles Expressionism then was a heightened sense of pathos and impending doom, and an acute awareness of the self. Schieles Expressionist form drew from the great European reservoir of Symbolist evocativeness. So, from a veritable melange of varying influences, Schiele managed to get his form, which combined that of exceptional draughtsman, with an inescapable desire for portraying the artistry of ugliness, something of which Schiele was something of a pioneer. In 1897, Schiele joined the painting class of Christian Griepenkerl; who was a deeply conservative artist devoted to neoclassicism, or the slavish devotion and replication of classic works of art. This involved long hours copying the works of the Old Masters at Viennas Academy of Fine Art. Schiele was enrolled for his superior draughtsmanship, but he was eventually alienated from it because he didnt see the relevance or the importance in neoclassicism. Thus, he became something of a troublemaker to the establishment, and was eventually forced out. This was echoed 100 years hence by the Romantics; an art group who pursued a loose programme intended to reinvest art with emotional impact. The Romantics, however, proved too unpalatable to the Viennese citizenry, who instead preferred the work of Biedermeier artists. Kallir says: On the whole, Germans proved more receptive to Romanticism than Austrians who shied away from such intense expressions of feeling and took refuge in the mundane cheer of the Biedermeier. She goes on to say: Biedermeier [] was geared more to the applied than to the fine arts, though in all its myriad incarnations it promoted the personal comforts of the middle class Burger. Biedermeier painting revolved around idealized renditions of everyday life, scenes of domestic bliss, genre pictures portraying ruddy-cheeked peasants, and picturesque views of the native countryside. Being born into this highly stringent, conservative environment must have shaped Schieles defiance somewhat, as Schiele not only seems to break with what was established in Vienna as profitable art, but he almost seems to occupy exactly the opposite role. Even in works by Klimt, who was deemed controversial at the time, there are still elements of decorative palatability that makes his work visually and aesthetically appealing. Schiele seems to be deliberately working against this formula; which was brave considering that art, at the time, depended on patronage and buyers to actually sustain a profit. Schiele didnt seem concerned in the slightest that his work wouldnt get a buyer. In fact, the market is abandoned almost completely. In Schieles early work, art becomes ugly; his figures are pallid and atrophied; the composition of the pieces are unconventional and thus attack the sensibilities of the audience. Upon his break from Viennas Academy, and much akin to Klimt, whom he admired and painted on a number of occasions, Schiele set up his own group, entitled simply, The New Art Group. This was similar to Klimts route, as he set up the Viennese Secession, of which Schiele would play a part, which came from and used the tried and tested formula of the Genossenschaft betdender Kunster Wiens (Vienna Society of Visual Artists), a project financed by Emperor Franz Josef as a means of promoting art in the city. However, this system was not without its drawbacks. Its progressive potential was [] undermined by a policy of majority rule, which generally granted victory to the conservative faction. Within this context, the societys role as dealer was particularly disturbing to the younger, more forward-thinking minority, from whom exclusion from major exhibitions could have adverse financial consequences. Similarly, the capitalist nature of art, coupled with the conservatism of the market made for a very difficult time for the progressive artist, and perhaps was a reason behind why Schiele opposed the artistic community with such fervency and vitriol, and often resorted to shock tactics and self-publicity to get himself heard. Klimts Secession operated on similar principles to the Vienna society: the Secession [] was principally a marketing agent for its members work. Thus, again it proved difficult for the younger, more radical artists to break through, despite Klimts support. Later, funds from patronage dwindled, so it was necessary for artists to seek out new markets. The withdrawal of official patronage pre-empted the Secessionists to seek new ways of generating the sales and commissions necessary to keep them in business. Ultimately, this meant that socialist, and personal art became more prominent a theme. The monumental, allegorical themes that Klimt and Schiele tended to attack (although Schieles work was deeply personal, it was also very monumental and took a number of influences from Klimt and symbolist art), no longer had a substantial market. Klimts decorative style, coupled with his established name, could still sell work to his established clients. Schiele, however, had no such luck, and it was only in 1918, the last year of his life, that Schiele managed to break even with his work. Although Schiele did not seem overly concerned with the economic potential of his works; in fact, he even seemed to equate poverty and suffering to the role of an artist in general, and Schiele was probably one of the most uncompromising artists of the twentieth century in terms of pandering to a particular audience; it is nevertheless important to consider economics, social and cultural conditions because, Schiele, by setting himself and his role as an artist in direct opposition to the establishment, also put himself in the long-standing tradition of artist in opposition to mainstream society. Kallir points out that: The Secession, the Galerie Muethke, and the Wiener Werkstatte [, the latter two being establishments set up in the wake of the gradual reduction of patronage funds and a need to find and establish new markets for art], in the formative first decade of this century were peculiar products of their times that shared common aspirations and limitations. It was important to all concerned that these entities, although ostensibly committed to marketing art, were artist-run. So, although economics were a concern in art, they were not necessarily, as dictated previously with the majority run Vienna Society of Visual Artists, primarily about making money and transforming the Viennese art scene into a profitable industry. Economics was an incidental concern, only foisted upon the establishment by chronic necessity: The artists evinced a tacitly accepted loathing for art-as-business (Schiele could be particularly eloquent on this point) and a determination to place aesthetic considerations above economic ones. So, as is fairly obvious from the art that he made, Schiele was against the motive of making money from art. But this reveals an interesting contradiction that plagued expressionist and other, later artists seeking to make a living from art at the same time as challenging the social and economic processes that ultimately fund its creation: [I]f the primary goal [of these entities] was to serve the artistic community, these organisations could not entirely ignore their secondary purpose: to sell art. So, Schiele, like many other artists, was cut between a requirement for money (which was especially apparent now that the former staple of patronage monies had all but dried up), and a requirement to express uncompromisingly his artistic expression. Schiele would not settle for the former, and instead pursued the latter with a vigour and an intensity that, at the time, was quite extraordinary. Schiele and Self-Portraiture. Of all the artists in the 20th century, or indeed any century, Egon Schiele was probably one of the most self-conscious. But, in Schiele, the self is a very problematic subject. Schoeder suggests: In his self-portraits, Schiele shows himself as wrathful, with a look of spiritual vacancy, or as if racked by a severe spasm of hysteria; or arrogantly looking down his nose, with head tossed back; or apprehensively or naively peering out of the picture. Which Schiele is the real Schiele? Schiele seems to instinctively divide himself into differing components, but also, he uses art to singularly pursue his own political views of the role of artist, in many ways using self-portraiture to assert, rather than fragment his own personality. The ambiguity with which Schiele regards himself can be looked at in a number of ways. 1. The Artist-as-Martyr It could be argued that Schiele was simply posing, or playing the varying roles of artist to gratify his ego. This is interesting because Schiele was definitely working toward a specific identity as artist. In 1912, Schiele was arrested for three days for publishing obscene works where they could be displayed to children. An item of his work was subsequently burned in the courtroom. In prison, he creates a number of interesting works of art, that are especially interesting because their titles read like manifestoes. Titles such as Hindering the Artist is a Crime, It Is Murdering Life in the Bud! (1912), For Art and for My Loved Ones I Will Gladly Endure to the End! (1912), and Art Cannot Be Modern: Art Is Primordially Eternal (1912). Certainly, judging from these titles, Schiele definitely has a number of ideas regarding the artist, his specific role, and what separates a true artist from a charlatan. Schiele, in his highly polemical, hyperbolic painting titles, equates the artist with suffering and martyrdom, suggesting that he will endure, and immediately glorifying the artist as a giver of life and eternal well being to the masses. Schroeder goes on to say: Behind these works lies the idealization of suffering in the Romantic cull of genius, as updated in the last years of the nineteenth century through the writing of Friedrich Nietzsche and through the posthumous response to Arthur Schopenhauer. [] The turn of the century saw the apogee of the Artist-as-Martyr legend, in which the relationship between suffering and greatness draws so close that the pose of suffering may in itself constitute a claim to the higher grades of artistic initiation. So, the implication here is that Schiele was indeed acting a specific role of artist, that he was assuming a specific pose of suffering that was in many ways an act of fulfilling his societal role as an artist. Certainly these roles of suffering were explicit in his work. In Self-Portrait Standing (1910), Schiele portrays himself as contorted and thin; his face is twisted into an ugly grimace, and the colours used are mottled, pale and rotten. His arms are deformed and his positioning is unnatural and forced. His eyes are hollow and there is no context to the portrait; the background is a simple cream colouring. To exaggerate his alienation yet further, Schiele highlights his body with a shock of white. This has the effect of drawing the subject even further out of his environmental world, and, along with the forced hand gestures, serves to make us see the subject as an exhibit, rather than as part of a natural world. As Schroeder points out: On the white expanse of paper, they do n ot exist: they are exhibited. In his principal work, Hermits (1912), he paints himself with Gustav Klimt, whose own break with neoclassicism and ornate style of expressionism was a major influence on Schieles early work. Klimt is seen as asleep, or else resting on the shoulders of Schiele, who stands in front of him in a large black cloak. Mitsch suggests that in Hermits, [s]eldom has the human body been visualised so exclusively as a materialization of spiritual forces []. But the painting is called Hermits, which suggests something about the role of artist that Schiele observed, although the painting certainly displays elements of the spiritual; as Steiner suggests, he presents the master and himself in a picture where two male figures in monklike garb and with aureoles about their heads are seen on a monumental plinth. In Hermits, Schiele and Klimt both look glum; Schiele stares defiantly back through the painting. The vast black cloak serves to homogenize the body of Klimt and Schiele, and thus portrays the role of the artist in general as one of blackness, of a biblical darkness. But, the title is more secular: Steiner goes on to say that: We see Hermits (as the painting is called) and not saints, and the tone is no longer mystical and remote but one of delicate equilibrium between the two men the elder, Klimt, deathlike, and the younger, Schiele, looking grim, doubtless because the artist leads a solitary life, condemned by society to suffer. So, Schiele, in a very modernist way, is simultaneously divorcing himself from the establishment of the religious school of Neoclassicism, but is also contemporising it. In similar ways that Freud brought scientific rigour, and secular practice into studies of the human psyche, Schiele was in turn taking religion out of mystical, allegorical artwork, and instead putting himself into it. This artistic position, as forerunner to Klimt, in a sense, emerging from the body of Klimt, but staring out defiantly and uniquely, epitomizes Schieles position. Steiner suggests that: At the time that he painted Hermits, Schiele was already seeing himself as a kind of priest of art, more the visionary than the academician, seeing and revealing things that remain concealed from normal people. 2. The Artist-As-Protean The ambiguity with which Schiele forges his own identity can also be seen in a different way. The variance between different forms of self-portrait merely represent different sides of the Schiele character. This would certainly fit into the Freudian notion of self as a stigmatized, fragmentary and anarchic collection of different preconceived notions. For instance; Freuds basic notions of Id, Ego and Super-Ego serve to fragment the self psychoanalysis in general serves to this effect, and, in a number of Schiele self-portraits, he uses the quite unusual system of the double portrait to encapsulate this fragmentation. Fischer makes the point that [t]he familiar repertoire of Freudian psychology with its ego and super-ego, conscious and unconscious realms, might equally be applied to these dual self-portraits. A great deal of photography of Egon Schiele (of which a great deal exists) utilizes the effect of double exposure, thus, a doubling of the self. In one untitled photograph of Egon Schiele , he is seen firstly staring into the distance, while another image of himself looks back, observing himself intently. Steiner says that: Schiele countered the sensory fragmentation of the self by means of a multiple self which came little by little to form a visual concept which reconstituted his unity with the world in a visionary way. Indeed, during the time when expressionism was most active, a serious redefinition was underway, on the secular, theoretical grounds of Nietzsche and Freud, and also due to the cataclysmic human and social catastrophe of the Great War. In Hermann Bahrs 1916 book, simply entitled Expressionism, he says: Never was there a time so shaken with so much terror, such a fear of death. Never was the world so deathly silent. Never was man so small. Never had he been so alarmed. Never was joy so far away and liberty so dead. But he rallies against this bleakness, which is encapsulated in other modernist and expressionist works; works such as Eliots Wasteland and the paintings of Munsch and the German school of expressionism: Now necessity cries out. Man cries after his soul, and the whole age becomes a single cry of need. Art, too, cries with it, into the depths of darkness; it cries for help; it cries after the spiritual: that is expressionism. So, by ploughing the ambiguities of the self, this reading would assume that Schiele was, in many respects, crying after his soul, so to speak; searching among the myriad of different identities available to him, a concrete or at least a compatible sense of self that had eluded him, along with an entire generation of artists dispossessed by the Viennese establishment. The various parts of Schieles meticulous, and almost surgical self-analysis falls into a number of distinct camps, but also seems to, in a more generalised sense, work against the pattern of self-portrait or nudity established by other artists. Up until that time, generally speaking, the nude was seen in a grandiose sense: the painted nude women, such as those in Degas, were painted as Goddesses, resplendently beautiful, radiant, often placed in scenarios that depicted frolicking jollity or natural equilibrium; and the men, who were much rarer in contemporary art, were generally seen as heroic, muscular and noble. Schiele breaks entirely with this long-established tradition. Firstly, the school of nude self-portraiture at the time only comprised of a single person; Richard Gerstl, whose painting Self-Portrait, Naked stood on its own at the time as the only painting to be done of the nude artist. Schroeder points out: Just how uncommon is was to depict oneself naked is revealed by the fact that before 1910 only one precedent existed in the whole of Austrian art. Thus, Schiele was already putting himself in the position of pioneer of a particularly exhibitionist genre. But, in unsheathing the artist of the attire that would previously assign to him his identity, Schiele places a whole new dynamic in the art: the dynamic of the self itself. One of Schieles most important works Seated Male Nude (1910), Schiele portrays himself covering up his own face. Indeed, in most of his self-portraits, especially his early ones, his posture is contorted and manufactured; he is posing and the background again is simply a plain, unembellished white. In Seated Male Nude, Schiele is grossly emaciated, his feet have been cut off, and his nipples and eyes glow red, suggesting that there is a deep demonism within him. He is seen as grotesquely, disturbingly ectomorphic; the figure looks as though it has been taken down from a gothic crucifix: it is angular, and looks carved: Schiele was seeing himself as Christ without a loin-cloth. The red highlights of his eyes, nipples, navel and genitals make the body look as if it were glowing from within. But, also, the red glowing from within also exposes another central tenet of Schieles work namely, that it gives the appearance that he is hollow inside. Schiele preserved his more allegorical, symbolic works for the medium of oil; paintings such as Hermits discussed earlier, and thus, this hollowness cannot be overlooked as having greater metaphorical meaning, and would suggest the reasons behind why Schieles self-portraiture varied to such a large degree; namely, that the inner self which Schiele was desperate to uncover, was absent, or simply defined as a mad, glowing redness. [S]pastic and hunch-backed, or with a rachitic deformation of the ribcage: this was the artist as an image of abject misery a cripple [] the dirty colouring, with its shrill accents, makes the flesh tones ugly and aberrant. In Seated Male Nude, a self-portrait, the artist mutates into an insect. The absence of feet [] [is] an amputation. This is a mangled soul in a mangled body. We see through the body into the soul. Indeed, the mangled soul is non-existent, the inside is hollow and empty. So, insomuch as this is similarly affected by social and cultural developments at the time, Schiele is moreover offering a more detailed and theoretically astute reading of the self and warring and dissolute factions. Schroeder says that: If all of these self-dramatizations reveal the true nucleus of the painters psyche, then he must have been a fragmented personality, unlikely to escape the diagnostic attentions of the genius Sigmund Freud. The question is just how much of his psyche is conveyed by his self-portraits, either those with grimaces or those that express a frozen resignation? What and whom does Egon Schiele really see in his studio mirror? [] It makes all the difference in the world whether he is observing his own body as an act of direct, emotional self-knowledge or whether in his imagination he is slipping into someone elses role and experiencing his own self as that of another person. So, that Schiele depicts himself as a variety of different people doesnt necessarily mean that he is living up to a certain artistic function; in a sense, glamorizing the role of the artist as a suffering person. Art As Pornography Schiele has been regarded by many critics as a pornographer. Looking at his paintings, which often draw attention to the genitals, to eroticized regions of the human body, as well as the contorted and mechanistic quality to the nude portraits, which appear twisted and exploited. Schiele was eventually put in prison for his indecency, although this was due to his eccentric practice of showing his work to the friends of the children who were painted, often nude. Schroder suggests that [i]n Schieles early pictures of children the objective embarrassment of the models lowly social origins is reinforced by the embarrassment of their obscene nakedness. This would suggest that the portraits themselves are designed to be as exploitative and as pornographic as possible. The children portrayed are certainly seen in an especially lurid light; and their embarrassment is portrayed by their forced poses, the absence of environment, etc. However, it is often difficult, at the time and later, to extrapolate eroticism from pornography, and in Schiele, this is particularly difficult. Schiele himself denied accusations of pornography, and certainly, the nudes have greater substance and meaning in terms of formulating an Expressionist identity of the self. Mitsch suggests that Schiele expresses [in his eroticism] human bondage and is to be understood as a burden that is painful to bear. Aimed, from the beginning, at outspokenness and truthfulness, it assumes almost inevitably a daring form. So, here difficulty with regarding Schieles output is highlighted. The work is about expressing human bondage, but it is also exaggerated and mutilated and outspoken. So Schiele acts as both pornographer and eroticist, and also strikes out more clearly at exposing the truth behind the body. Schiele himself commented on accusations that his work is pornographic made by his Uncle, by replying in a letter, saying that the erotic work of art is scared too. The painting Reclining Girl In A Blue Dress (1910), establishes this difficulty. In it, a girl is portrayed, leaning back and revealing her genitals. Her genitals are high-lighted in white, and draw the eye to the girls genitals using both composition and colour. The brush-strokes are strikingly crude, almost sketchy. Fischer says that [i]t is impossible to defend this picture against the charge of pornography. Even so, Schieles radicalism of form places him beyond too simplistic a categorisation. He goes on to say: He was not merely out to satisfy a shallow voyeuristic impulse. Pubescent lust and delight in discovery, the nave symbolism of distinguishing sexual features, and boyish stratagems for looking up girls skirts are combined in the twenty-year-old artists way of viewing the world with the invention of ingenious new forms, which took the Schiele of 1910 a step forward, out of the world of teachers and uncles and into the radical world view of the Expressionist avant-garde. In the years ahead, Schiele pursued this distinctive combination obsessively. So, according to Fischer, even though his work was pornographic, the forms in which this pornography took and the means by which Schiele painted these pornographic images, allowed us to question the nature of the images and thus elevate them to something beyond pornography. Schiele was certainly obsessed with portraying the self: his images, despite being, at times, shamelessly provocative and deliberately controversial to the conservative Viennese public (the pre-conceived role of an artist to challenge the perception of the ordinary people would stress this, and was a certain depiction of the artist that Schiele would live by), would also put stress on the techniques and the principles applied to the painting in order to elevate it beyond mere titillation or voyeurism. In his nudes, Schiele was definitely looking to get closer to his, and societies view of the human condition in the confusing wake of secularism, the transmogrification of belief toward the self (in Freud and Nietzsche, for instance), and the selfs role in society. Naturally his view is not a particularly optimistic one, and he is frequently out to establish the pain in the heart of the self his cut-off, mutilated and distorted figures serve to expose the more desultory aspects of the self, and thus his images appear less as pornographic, and more as pieces that actually challenge and oppose the traditionally pornographic, by immediately and shockingly exposing those parts of the human nude previously coveted, and exposing them for all to see. The critic Reinhard Steiner has greater reservations about the classification of Schieles work as pornographic. He suggests that [i]t may well be true that Schiele was out to exorcise sexual devils, and was living out in his imagination impulses that could not always be satisfied in reality. [] However, this does not seem fully adequate as an explanation []. [G]iven the frequently unsightly, tortured look of [] nakedness, it would be a mistake to overstress the erotic component. The unpleasantness of Schieles paintings, although they tend to highlight certain areas of human obsession, specifically with the focus on genitalia and the exaggerated features of models, tend to go against the grain of voyeuristic pornography, and instead stigmatize and attack the viewers conceptions of desire, by painting the bodies in such a negative way. Although the politics of exploitation were present, in a sense, Schiele inverts these processes, and subsequently provides pornography with its binary o pposite. The Art Of Ugliness Schiele was ahead of his time in a number of ways, by revolutionizing the subject matter he painted, by contemporizing the age-old study of the human nude, and, moreover, by painting pictures that wouldnt necessarily have themselves a natural market in provincial Vienna. Schieles portraits are ugly, and they are striking in their ugliness. The composition of the pieces are skewed, and the subjects are drawn as emaciated and rotting. The eye is simultaneously drawn to, and away from his harsh, realist canvas, as though one is witnessing a human car crash, or an exhibition of atrocity which cannot be ignored. However, I argue that the most important aspect of Schieles work, and the part of Schiele that cannot be ignored, is how he paved the way for future expressionist painters by conveying, and subsequently revolutionizing the art of ugliness. Mitsch suggests that Schieles art [] unites a strong realism with alienation effects resulting from his recognition of the autonomy of stylistic means. It is the alienation effect that is important in Schieles work. His genius is in the fact that he used his prolific artistic and technical talent to broach a subject that would ultimately challenge the viewer into questioning and interrogating the concept of self. Schiele, by ditching the traditional aesthetic codes, by abandoning the romantic and the classicist modes of drawing the nude, and by unflinchingly portraying the nude as a thwarted, twisted and confused subject, in turn opened the floodgates for other, similarly inclined painters, determined to show the darker aspects of the human psyche in art. The reaction to Schieles work after his untimely death in 1918 is interesting, and proves that his early work still had the ability to shock long afterwards. His later, more sober work gained much acclaim very quickly, but it took many years, and a sexual revolution, for Schieles early works, his more controversial nudes and self-portraits to enter mainstream art. Mitsch goes on to say: While his late work soon attracted sympathetic attention and also led to the first purchases by the State, the early works received a wider appreciation only gradually. Their expressionist pathos and uncompromising forms required greater sophistication on the part of the onlooker. A revolution in aesthetics had led to the discovery of the beauty in so-called ugliness. So Schiele was before his time in portraying this ugliness in such an unflinching manner. Even though the general movement was geared towards introspection and a study and reappraisal of the human form, Schiele proved to be culturally ahead of his time with his early work, which divided audiences then and will probably continue to do so. Mitsch continues: Rodin once said that only that which has its character, that which is able to give expression to a great inner truth, is beautiful in art; this seems no longer a paradox. Ugliness was deliberately sought after as something novel, as a basic regeneration with an inherent potential for new developments. This process, often to be observed in times of crisis and radical change, entailed of necessity also such a modification in the former scale of values that Ludwig Hevesi could coin a lapidary formula for the realm of aesthetics: beautiful means ugly, and ugly, beautiful. Schiele questioned and interrogated the body of the human being, in how it was portrayed in art, and why it was portrayed as such. Conclusion Egon Schiele was both ahead of his times and with them. By aggressively and successfully fighting against an established set of aesthetic norms and preconceptions as to the role and the function of art in contemporary society, Egon Schiele paved the way for a new generation of artists obsessed more by the politics of ugliness, rather than simply providing a work of art that would look pleasing. By appropriating the theories of Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, and the politics of the Expressionist school of art, Schiele radicalised how art would be seen in the twentieth century. Although Schiele was ostensibly tied to a number of specific traditions, was still adapting his finely honed techniques, he used painting in an altogether different way. Schiele successfully managed to expose and develop his world view in a way that was specific to him, and would be emulated by others. His artistic polemic, directed at the art establishment, which he saw as a perversion of traditional artistic principles, was striking insofar as it sought to expose and radicalise the notion of the body in the twentieth century, during a time of massive social and cultural change. The growing spirit of secularism, coupled with the economic necessity to portray a self that it less weighted by the models of traditional art (a break in the funding of art through patronage facilitated this move) facilitated Schieles move toward portraying a specific mode of artist that he would cling onto. Schieles notion of the artist was as a martyr a Christ-like figure wandering in pained solitude, in isolation from the specificities and the mundane whims of everyday existence. He painted and fabricated this notion of the artist-as-martyr, as portrayed by Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, and, in a deeply self-conscious way, formulated his own artistic niche that would be understood later as a man struggling to cope with the social upheaval and the cultural, existential changes apparent at the time. Thus, his work was uncompromising and stark his human models, which included himself, would be portrayed as contorted and distorted, their sexualities withered and horrific in doing so, Schiele reassembled the way in which the self was analysed in contemporary art. Schieles early Expressionism was unencumbered by notions of capturing an objective reality. Like Expressionism itself, and referring again to the description offered in the 1912 catalogue for the exhibition in Cologne: [Expressionism is] simplification and intensification in the mode of expression, after new rhythms and new uses of colour. The major triumph of Egon Schiele is in redesigning and contemporizing art in the light of massive criticism by forbearing any conceivable notion of making profit from art, via his constant artistic dialogue with himself and his role as an artist in Viennese society, by portraying and courageously exploring the darker sides of eroticism, Schiele successfully managed to bring Viennese Expressionism to the foreground of a movement chiefly linked to making ancient modes of expression new. Thus, Schiele is equally in touch with the politics of the self at the time of his painting, and also establishes and pioneers a profound and fresh view of sexual and human desire in art and taboo that remain with us to this day. Bibliography Comini, A., Egon Schiele, Thames And Hudson, London, 1976 Fischer, W. G., Schiele, Taschen, Spain, 1998 Kallir, J., Egon Schiele: The Complete Works, Harry N. Abhams, New York, 1990 Mitsch, E., The Art Of Egon Schiele, 2nd ed. Phaidon Press, Oxford, 1988 Schroeder, K. A., Egon Schiele: Eros and Passion, Prestel, New York, 1995 Schnitzler, A., Dream Story, Penguin, London, 1999 Steiner, R., Schiele, Taschen, Cologne, 2000 Werkner, P. ed., Egon Schiele: Art, Sexuality and Viennese Modernism, University of Washington Press, Washington, 1994

Developmental Disabilities A Developmental Disability

Did you know that an estimated 4.6 million Americans have a developmental disability? That is almost five percent of the country’s population, not including the hundreds of people that go untreated, or who have never been diagnosed. The term â€Å"developmental disabilities† refers to a group of conditions that cause impairment in physical, learning, language, or behavioral development. Typically manifesting during the primary development period (between ages 2 and 17), these conditions usually last throughout the entirety of a person’s lifetime. In an effort to counteract the potentially detrimental effects that living with a developmental disability may have on a person, there are many development disability services that assist children,†¦show more content†¦For some, choosing to employ at an organization that focuses on creating these support systems is a dream come true. But the jobs are not always a walk in the park. The demands of working with de velopmentally disabled people are large, both emotionally and mentally. Individuals who want to work with disabled individuals will need to have a certain type of training and experience beforehand. The specific type of education that is needed depends on the place where the individual is seeking employment. Working with young children calls for more care and a higher level of education. Public facilities are also pickier about the type of education that you have, while private institutions are the least selective about their employees’ backgrounds. In order to work in a school with mentally disabled children, special training as a special education teacher is a must. This program requires you to obtain a bachelor’s degree in a related field like special education, psychology, or human development. Many colleges and universities across the United States offer programs in special education at the undergraduate, master s, and doctoral degree levels. After obtaining the bachelor’s degree, the next step is to complete a teaching program that involves watching, and then teaching classes under observation. Special education is a big priority in schools. The need for highly qualified teachers with a special education background is in high demand. Due to the numerous

Functionalism Sociology and Social Order Free Essays

The functionalist model of how society works has many limitations and few strengths. ’’ Explain and also asses this view. By Sadhana sanba In the study of sociology, functionalist perspective is a view of society that focuses on the way various parts of society have functions and live in a ‘consensus’ that maintain the stability and social order of the whole. We will write a custom essay sample on Functionalism: Sociology and Social Order or any similar topic only for you Order Now Functionalist model of how society works tends to focus to be an organized, stable, well integrated system , in which most members agree on basic values which is as called’ ‘value consensus’. However, functionalist theory alongside the other school of theories such as marrxism (conflict theory) and interactionism is criticized for having many limitsaitons of explaining thew social phenomenon of its working. Herbert spencer an early functionalist and later emile Durkheim compares the working of society to the organic analogy and the way a biological organisms works. Any organisms has a structure- that is , a set of inter-related components, such as head, limbs, a heart lungs and so on. Each of these parts has functions – that is a positive and need consequence for the whole system. In th3ee same way, spencer argued , a society has structure. Its inter-related parts are family, religion, values and norms, social elements and so on. Ideally,hence, each of these componenets also has a function that contributes to the overall stability of social system. However, the analogy has many . limmits. it is difficult for example to compare the way organisms grow to the way society grows and change. Is therea social equivalent to the DNA the genetic program present in every species? Does a society really have a series of complementary institution together to make the whole function smoothly to the mutual benefit of all? Although, Modern-structural-functionalism does not press the analogy between a society and an organism and has subsequently been much refined and modified, however, the functionalist view of how society works still has few strength only Talcott Parson(1951) argues that any society has four functional needs or pre-requisites that need to be met for it to survive: these are adaptation ,goal attainment, integration and latency (AGIL). However , his model of society’s working has been havily criticized for being bland abd fruitless by the way arsons went about examining society. Parsons also tried to show how consensus based on shared values is essential to social order. He also concluded that the stratified system is crucial in mainting consensus in society which, in the other way, conflict theory of karl marx describes as ‘inequality’. Parsons and Durkheim evidently saw social inequality ‘stratification’ as a necessary and universal feature of society and that inequality could be mitigated by the prevalence of social mobility completely disregarding the fact that social inquality in a society is a key source of social conflict and dominancy. Also, the functional view of assuming the existence of a meritocratic society i. e, a society where everyone has a equal chance og achieving high social status and reward is not contextual. This kind of role and effects only works if many other features of society are ignored and even distorted.. here, Melvin Tumin (1953) argues that how and why are some social position assumed to be functionally more important than others ? Who decided and how ? The concept of ‘functional satisfication is value laden and deciding which postions are functionally more important than others cannot be done objectively for example the payment that the top football stars in the Uk and the earnings of the prime minister in the same country. The players ears six times mored than the political figure . Hence, society always cannot be induced by the material rewards and functional theory maybe dysfunctional and damaging it may generate conflict and antagonism between social strata rather than furthering social integration to which Weberain view explains the dynamics of stratification in modern society with existence of conflicts between owners and workers creating white collar and blue collar workers. Functional view of creating social order an important model of society ,has been criticized for its limitation on the fact that it serves only the selfish ambitions of the rich and powerful. As Durkhein believes t hat society is in its essence its moral codes . The rules and order, the degree competitiveness between people and governmental conducts help to cement and build social order he called them the mechanical and organic principles of solidarity . The description of ‘mechanical solidarity and ‘organic solidarity’ provides insides about the basic way of forming social order in society which in face Max Weber argues is more applicable and impliable only in the industrial complex societies and is criticized by Marx for disregarding the poor , economically weak and ‘proletariat’ as in his words, society. Hence, the phenomenon of ‘collective conscience’ and ‘value consensus’ the functionalist theory implies in one way or other inherently conservative that is focused only on a particular social theme. It does not consider that order and conflict exist side by side and as Marx says is achieved through the domination by the few over the many, and that domination is possible because it reflects the economic circumstances of the groups which is constantly unstable as it is based on equality and continuing conflict of interest between those who own the means of production and who don’t. In the same way interactionist view of how society works emphasizes that members of societies are not just constrained in their everyday lives by moral codes or by economic relationships but that each individual are actors in each situation they negotiate or confront to which is also simplifiedly said ‘situational interaction’ Hence, functionlist perspective is limited with logical problem it embraces,if something in society is recurrent, functionlist say that it must be meeting a need. Functionalism lacks any real power to explain social change or changes. It leans heavily towards describing society in a stable condition and seems to emphasizes the status- quo: the media reflect all views, women are domestically oriented, marriages are happy, all individualist are ladened by values and norms that they internalize confining into it to create social order and so on. Functionalist risk the temptation of dismissing disruptive changes as dysfunctional, even if those changes are necessary, inevitable and beneficial in the long run However functionalist theory perspective is useful in explaining the functions or consequences, that a given element has in society which contribute the stability of the social system as a whole and hence, therefore, insights human beings of their existence and role in a society. Posted byingsamaat9:06 AM 1 comment: 1. BuzzerOctober 9, 2011 9:31 AM It really helped me a lot. ReplyDelete Add comment How to cite Functionalism: Sociology and Social Order, Essay examples

Farringtons Character Analysis from Joyces Counterparts Essay Example For Students

Farringtons Character Analysis from Joyces Counterparts Essay However, t is extremely important to remember that Barrington is sinned against as well as sinning: that he is a product as well as a perpetrator of the paralysis of Dublin. Like other Edibleness, Barrington is trapped by the Irish nets of religion, language, and nationality. In fact, Irelands misgovernment by English law is illustrated by the story of Affirmations mistreatment, so that Affirmations inarticulate rage against innocent bystanders is comprehensible, if not exonerated, on political grounds. The reader is introduced to Barrington. A red-faced gigantic man who Joyce instantly portrays as heavy, plodding, drooping, and ruddy. When he stood up he was tall and of great bulk. He had a hanging face, dark wine-colored, with fair eyebrows and moustache: his eyes bulged forward slightly and the whites of them were dirty. The hugeness of his physique is thus contrasted to the tedium tot his work. The mundane task of duplication neither allows him any mental exercise nor demands an y physical exertion, The energy thus remains bottled within the humongous frame, which then takes the shape tot relentless vitriol. While the monotony of this job enrages him, Barrington envisions release room such deadening activity in the warmth and drink of public houses. But his experiences there only beget further routine. Following the round tradition in which each person in a group takes turns buying drinks for all companions present, he continually spends money and consumes more alcohol. The presence of Weathers, vivo takes advantage of this system, makes Barrington realize how such tradition and repetition literally rob him. His anger mounts throughout the story. His pawning of his watch may symbolically release him from the shackles f schedules and time demands, but the frustrations Of work only take on new and more extreme forms at the pub and at home. For Barrington, life repeats itself: work is like the pub is like home. Thus the root Of Apparitions problem is his inability to realize the maddening circularity that defines his days. He consistently makes life worse for himself, not better. He slips away from work as he pleases. Insults his boss, and matter-of-faculty pawns his watch to buy alcohol. Though each small rebellion makes him momentarily happy, the displaced rage imply reappears someplace else, usually exacerbated by his actions. Barrington shows what can happen when a life consists primarily of mindless repetition: sooner or later violence will surface, and those vivo witness or are subject to the violence may themselves act violently in the future. Apparitions explosive violence sets him apart from some of the other characters in Edibleness, Who often accept routine and boredom as facts Of life and do little to upset the balance familiarity and calm theft established. Joyce remarked in a letter to Australians, l am no friend of tyranny, as you know, UT if many husbands are brutal the atmosphere in which they live is brutal. It is clear that religion and society trap Barrington in an unhappy marriage where he loathed returning to his home {since} his wife was a little sharp. Faced woman who bullied her husband when he was sober. However, the humiliating and impotent experience of colonial oppression that we see in Counterparts is what predominantly serves to enrage this man and brings about his ignominy, In the hour leading up it his brutal attack, Barrington suffers multiple defeats all of which are notably at the hands of the British or those loyal to Britain, magnifying his impassions standing. Affirmations first defeat in Counterparts comes at the hands of his boss Mr. Allen, who has a piercing North of Ireland accent. Though he is Irish, Allens northern accent means that in all probability he would be in favor of Protestantism and English rule and therefore an agent of the oppressor. In response, Affirmations toddy ached to do something to rush out and revel in violence. All the indignities of his life enraged him Clearly, Jockeys use of the ellipsis indicates that these unnamed indignities go beyond merely those described in the narrative and surely include the plight of his home-life and that of his subjugated nation. .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .postImageUrl , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:hover , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:visited , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:active { border:0!important; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:active , .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u97bc605d62d24514ba739fd1b070000e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: BULLIES IN SCHOOL EssayAffirmations next defeats come in the pub at the hands Of the British acrobat and artiste Weathers. The financially strapped Barrington, who had pawned his watch to fund that evenings drinking, reluctantly stands two rounds Of Weathers expensive, imported Whiskey and Pollinates and later Barrington was just standing another round when Weathers came back. The allegory here between Weathers pilfering of drinks ND his nations thievery of Irish resources such as the destruction of nearly all Irelands forests for lumber. Is obvious. Just like his nation, Weathers bleeds the Irishman dry. Barrington further loses to Weathers in an arm wrestling match, and is unable to uphold the national honor in the match of strength a clear microcosm of the colonial struggle between these mens combatant lands, The lack of reciprocation from the lady with a London accent in the pub, adds on to Barrington5 humiliation in this colonial society, Thus, though he burns with anger at these failures, the power structure of is own lot in life and that of colonial Ireland precludes any release upon the oppressors who actually are the cause of this rage; therefore this frustration becomes displaced upon the only person Barrington can master in this colonial society ? his helpless son. With Barrington, Joyce is showing that Irish brutality and intemperance find their roots deeply entrenched within the colonial experience. While the colonial factor cannot and should not exonerate Barrington, they certainly do illuminate the causes of his disturbing actions and illustrate Britains culpable role in the paralysis of Dublin.

New Trade Theory Paul Krugmans Contributions Essay Example

New Trade Theory: Paul Krugmans Contributions Paper Paul Robin Krugman,  born February 28, 1953 is an American  economist, Professor of Economics and International Affairs at the  Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs  at  Princeton University, Centenary Professor at the  London School of Economics, and an  op-ed  columnist  for  The New York Times. In 2008, Krugman won the  Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics  for his contributions to  New Trade Theory  and New Economic Geography. He was voted sixth in a 2005 global poll of the worlds top 100 intellectuals by  Prospect. According to the Nobel Prize Committee, the prize was given for Krugmans work explaining the patterns of  international trade  and the geographic concentration of wealth, by examining the impact of  economies of scale  and of consumer preferences for diverse goods and services. Krugman is known in academia for his work on  international economics  (including trade theory, economic geography, and international finance),  liquidity traps and currency crises. According to the  IDEAS/RePEc  rankings, he is among the thirteen most widely cited economists in the world today. As of 2008, Krugman has written 20 books and has published over 200 scholarly articles in professional journals and edited volumes. He has also written more than 750 columns dealing with current economic and political issues for  The New York Times. Krugmans  International Economics: Theory and Policy, co-authored with  Maurice Obstfeld, is a standard college  textbook  on international economics. He also writes on political and economic topics for the general public, as well as on topics ranging from  income distribution  to international economics. We will write a custom essay sample on New Trade Theory: Paul Krugmans Contributions specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on New Trade Theory: Paul Krugmans Contributions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on New Trade Theory: Paul Krugmans Contributions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Krugman considers himself a  liberal, calling one of his books and his  New York Times  blog â€Å"The Conscience of a Liberal†. INTERNATIONAL TRADE International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders. International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade do not change fundamentally regardless of whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or culture. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. HISTORY OF TRADE THEORIES 1) BARTER: It was the earliest form of trade. When human beings started agriculture it was only to fulfil their needs. However they started creating a surplus of the farm product they were farming. They were faced with the question: â€Å"What to do with the excess products? † Then they soon realized that other farmers who produced other products were also producing it in excess. To have the best of both sides, the farmers exchanged their farm products and this gave rise to the system of barter. As time passed and with the discovery of money (gold coins) this system of exchange of goods became less prominent. As the imperial society became developed and Kings becoming ruler of the land, it led to another system of trade i. e. Mercantilism. 2) MERCANTILISM Mercantilism is like a communist type of economy. The King is responsible for deciding which goods are to be traded and where. The imperial ruler would conquer lands and establish their colony and trade over there. Example- England, France, Portugal, Spain etc. Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is unchangeable. Economic assets (or capital) are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). The theory assumes that wealth and monetary assets are identical. Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of subsidies and tariffs respectively. Mercantilism, which reached its height in the Europe of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was a system which employed economic fallacy to build up a structure of imperial state power, as well as special subsidy and monopolistic privilege to individuals or groups favoured by the state. Academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, especially in England, in light of the arguments of Adam Smith and the classical economists which  brought  Ã‚   about  ideas  of  free trade as an alternative system. Mercantilism never returned to popularity among economists as the principle Comparative Advantage shows the gains from international trade. 3) ADAM SMITH Adam Smith is known world over as the world’s first free-market capitalist and the father of modern economics. He also popularized what is known today as ‘classical economics’. Laissez-faire and the idea that an ‘invisible hand’ guides ‘supply’ and ‘demand’ are the key ideas Smith’s writing is responsible for promoting. These ideas reflect the concept that each person, by looking out for him- or herself, inadvertently helps to create the best outcome for all. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we can expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest, Smith wrote. By selling products that people want to buy, the butcher, brewer and baker hope to make money. If they are effective in meeting the needs of their customers, they will enjoy the financial rewards. While they are engaging in their enterprises for the purpose of earning money, they are also providing products that people want. Such a system, Smith argued, creates wealth not just for the butcher, brewer and baker, but for the nation as whole when that nation is populated with citizens working productively to better themselves and address their financial needs. Adam Smith is also credited for writing the ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’, a massive work of 2 volumes divided into 5 books. The ideas it promoted generated international attention and helped to drive the move from land-based wealth to wealth created by assembly-line production methods driven by division of labour. The reason for the successful acceptance of Adam Smith’s Theory of free trade without government interference was that the traders were tired of working with the sovereign. They made a lot of losses and found it much better to trade without any interference. As a result they earned a lot of profits and this trade model became well established. Still till today Adam Smith’s trade theory is being used. It is the fundamental basis of many trade theories. Poverty which was not being removed by this theory was the main drawback of it. 4) DAVID RICARDO’S THEORY OF COMPARATIVE EDGE: David Ricardo’s theory was very simple. If there are two countries trading then the two of them will trade in such a way: If country A specializes in industrial sector and country B specializes in agricultural sector then country A will concentrate more on its industrial sector rather than its agricultural sector. Similarly country B will concentrate on its agricultural sector rather than its industrial sector. Thus country A will export its industrial products to country B and country B will export its agricultural products to country A. Example-Japan being a small island and having a good infrastructure concentrates on it automobile industry while it depends on neighbouring South East Asian countries for most of the agricultural goods. 5) HECKSHER-OHLIN MODEL The Heckscher–Ohlin model (H–O model) is a general equilibrium mathematical model of international trade, developed by Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin. The theory expands David Ricardos theory of comparative advantage. The model essentially says that countries will export products that utilize their abundant and cheap factor(s) of production and import products that utilize the countries scarce factor(s). The model instead of using the words of â€Å"specialization of country† uses the â€Å"concept of labour and capital of a country† to expand the simple model of David Ricardo. Assumptions of Heckscher-Ohlin Model The Heckscher-Ohlin model is based on the following assumptions: †¢ Countries involved in international trade differ in terms of factor abundance. One country needs to be labor-abundant and the other country being capital-abundant. †¢ Commodities can be categorized in terms of factor intensity. One commodity is labor-intensive and the other commodity is capital-intensive. This in turn implies that there is no possibility of factor intensity reversal. †¢ Both the countries involved in trade use same production technology and identical ranking of factor intensity of commodities. †¢ Both countries are assumed to have identical demand conditions. †¢ Production is carried out as per the CRS production function. †¢ Perfect competition persists in both countries. Open trade or free trade policy is followed in both the countries. In simple words Hecksher-Ohlin say that the capital-abundant country will export capital-intensive commodity and import labour-intensive commodity and the labour-abundant country will export labour-intensive commodity and import capital-intensive commodity. Hecksher-Ohlin till Paul Kru gman’s NTT was the most accepted trade theory. But it had taken many assumptions and hence was also criticized. The Hecksher-Ohlin model also won a Nobel Prize. Example- Bangladesh has a lot of labour and hence produces garments which require more labour. India with respect to Bangladesh has more capital in the ‘small car’ industry and hence exports cars to Bangladesh which in turn exports garments to India. SHORT COMINGS OF HECKSHER-OHLIN MODEL Even though the model was one of the widely accepted trade model, it still failed to explain many phenomena: 1. China did not follow a free trade policy, yet it was developing and growing very fast. 2. Even though Bangladesh exported garments to India, India itself was able to export its garments made to other countries. 3. Germany although had BMW, Volkswagen, Mercedes Benz to make cars, yet it imported cars from Renault in France. 4. America even though it had Ford still imported cars of Toyota and Honda from Japan. 5. England even though it did not grow cotton was one of the biggest producers of cloth. These were some of the questions that Hecksher-Ohlin and any other trade models could not answer. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT NEW TRADE THEORY To explain these phenomena and to remove the assumptions, the economists of the world tried to make a new theory. This theory was called New Trade Theory. All Paul Krugman did not play a part in the initial forming of the theory, but in 1979 his paper made the most significant and valuable contribution with respect to the NTT. Hence it is now a days called Paul Krugman’s New Trade Theory. Concept: New Trade Theory (NTT) is a collection of economic models in international trade which focuses on the role of increasing returns to scale and network effects, which were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. New Trade Theory is the economic critique of international free trade from the perspective of increasing returns to scale and the network effect. Some economists have asked whether it might be effective for a nation to shelter infant industries until they had grown to sufficient size to compete internationally. New Trade theorists challenge the assumption of diminishing returns to scale, and some argue that using protectionist measures to build up a huge industrial base in certain industries will then allow those sectors to dominate the world market (via a Network effect). They wondered whether free trade would have prevented the development of the Japanese auto industries in the 1950s, when quotas and regulations prevented import competition. Japanese companies were encouraged to import foreign production technology but were required to produce 90 percent of parts domestically within five years. It is said that the short-term hardship of Japanese consumers (who were unable to buy the superior vehicles produced by the world market) was more than compensated for by the long-term benefits to producers, who gained time to out-compete their international rivals. New Trade theorists relaxed the assumption of constant returns to scale. It used protectionist measures to build up a huge industrial base in certain industries and then allowed those sectors to dominate the world market. CONTRIBUTION OF PAUL KRUGMAN IN NTT(BRIEF) In brief : In the Krugman model, every firm is the same, though they each produce different products. Models with heterogeneous firms really didnt take off in the field until recently. Essentially the theory contends that there are increasing, rather than decreasing returns to scale. We observe this all the time with technology products where the so-called network effect creates larger returns as the network gets larger. It is sometimes used as a justification for protecting developing industries from competition on grounds that once those industries have reached a takeover mass, the returns will be larger than if they had to develop in a competitive environment. Now, moving on to explain the Old trade theory, we can say that it is what we probably learned when we took to introduce economics. Countries are different – they have different levels of productivity in particular industries, they have different resources, and those differences drive trade. Tropical countries grow and export bananas, temperate countries grow and export wheat. Countries with highly educated workers export high-tech goods, countries with less educated workers export shirts and pyjamas. The new trade theory starts with the observation that while this explains a lot of world trade, it also misses a lot. France and Germany sell lots of stuff to each other, even though they have similar climates and resources; so do the United States and Canada. The answer is that there are many goods that aren’t like wheat or bananas, but are instead likewide-bodied jet aircraft. There are, enormous economies of scale – you only want a couple of factories worldwide. Those factories have to be somewhere,and those countries that get the factories export jets, while everyone else imports them. But who gets the aircraft factories, or the factory producing a specialized kind of machine tool? This is explained by new trade theory –There are many economies-of-scale goods; everyone gets some of them; and the details, which may be largely a story of historical accident, aren’t important. What matters, instead, is the overall pattern of trade: the broad pattern of what countries produce is determined by things like resources and climate, but there’s a lot of additional specialization due to economies of scale, and there’s much more trade, especially between similar countries, than from a purely resource-based theory. All this seems obvious, and it is still obvious, but it was totally not obvious before 1980 or so, except for some prescient quotes from Paul Samuelson. The two main things that Paul Krugman pointed out in his paper were: a. Consumers want diverse choice of products. b. Production favours economies of scale. These two were the main basis on which the problems of the Hecksher-Ohlin model were explained. In the next two chapters we will see the role of these two points in detail. CONSUMERS WANT DIVERSE CHOICE The first question that the old theories failed to answer was that why countries who specialize in one product export it as well as import it. To explain this Paul Krugman gave the reason of consumer choice. He tells us that the consumer wants choice. the taste and preference of different consumers is different. To fulfil this choice the countries had to import certain goods even though it was well efficient in producing the same product. Let us understand this theory of Paul Krugman using examples: 1. America has Ford which is well efficient in making good cars. However Japan also exports cars to the US. The reason is that not all people of the US want the cars made by Ford. Even though the pricing and technology of both cars of Ford and that of Japan are same, people still buy both cars of Japan as well as US, 2. The same is the case in Japan and Germany. Inspite of having the best automobile industry both Japan and Germany also import cars. 3. France is a wine loving nation and hence it produces wine only. However some people also like beer, so to cater to them, France has to import Beer from Germany. However France also imports Beer from England. This is done because people want choice. 4. In, India we have Colgate which is one of the world’s biggest brands, yet there is scope for small companies like Amar and Babool. This is because people have different tastes and they want choices to choose from. 5. India is self sufficient in clothes making, yet we still import clothes. A person wearing an expensive Nike shoe also wears a cheap Bata shoe because of his liking. 6. India imports apples from New Zealand inspite us having the apples of Kashmir an Himachal. These Indian apples are themselves exported to other country which proves that consumer’s choice is an important factor in trade. 7. Hitachi and Onida air-conditioners use a same compressor built by Hitachi but the consumers of Hitachi and Onida are very different. Thus looking at these examples we can say that Germany imports cars from France only because the people of Germany want a diverse choice. This looks simple but it took a lot of time for Paul Krugman to develop. Thus the question why do countries who export one product also import the same is answered. The diverse choice of consumers is very helpful for everyone. Due to this choice the domestic consumer always has competition not only of other domestic companies but also of international companies. As a result the consumers as benefited greatly. The resources are used efficiently and new technology helps in making better products. PRODUCTION FAVOURS ECONOMIES OF SCALE Before we go further and explain this, we must 1st understand the concept of economies of scale. Economies of scale: The ‘economies of scale’ investing high capital to make a big production factory. The main objective is to make such a production centre that it behaves like a monopoly. The production capacity of such a place is very high. Production favours economies of scale: Paul Krugman says that production will be highest where input i. e. capital, technology and labour is high. To understand what he says we must 1st look at some examples: The question what he answered was that why when England had no cotton, it still was the capital for cloth. It also answers the question that why China and Japan grow so fast. Paul Krugman tells us that building an economies of scale is the reason why Japan and China grew so fast. He explains that when a place is made as a centre of production, the company benefits a lot. This is because the capital invested for higher production is much less that the total capital that would have been used to invest in factories at different locations for producing the same amount of product. This means that instead of having many factories one should just invest in one factory and thus save a lot on capital. The cost of freight is less than cost of land. Also making multiple factories of small scale would take a lot of time. Governments take initiative in some major industries and set up resources to build an economy of scale. Boeing and Airbus were created as a result of this. The English invested a lot of capital at Manchester in the textile industry. Thus even thought they did not grow any cotton, they still using their machines and technology make more cloth than any other country. Embraer the small jet company of Brazil whose jets are in so much demand was as a result of the support of the Brazilian government who set up an economy of scale for them. Jamnagar is still today the World’s Largest Refinery because Dhirubhai Ambani created a monopoly by investing huge capitals at one place and thus it was one of India’s 1st economy of scale. Maruti the Indian Car company was set up to cater the needs of Indians. A lot of investment was made for this. Today this small car manufacturer not only caters the Indian consumers but also exports to other countries. Coimbatore and Ludhiana are today the garment manufacturers of India because an economy of scale has been created at these two centers. Bangalore is the IT capital because an economy of scale (labour i. e. IT engineers) is available there. Anand is the milk capital of India because it is another form of economy of scale. Thus Paul Krugman said that production favours economies of scale. He further adds that government should take measure to reduce freight costs by building roads. He also tells that government should subsidize exports which will in turn increase production exports and there after growth. This theorem was the basis for growth in China and Japan. Japan: Japan from 1950s started investing high capitals in infrastructure and establishment of industries. Being a small group of islands, they were forced to make small centres of production with high capabilities. Thus this resulted in tremendous production and thus they exported goods to register high growth and become an economic super power. The freight rate was reduced as the government had built millions of kilometres of roads and tracks. The ports of Japan are also well developed. Thus by making economies of scale Japan became a super power. China: To become a super power economically, China started to open it s markets for trade. They invested a lot along the costal line and at Shanghai and Beijing. Thus centres of productions were created at scattered places. Thus even though development was not uniform economies of scale of different industries were created. Each village creates different products in China. The speciality of this is that each village produces only one unique product. One village produces socks only while another produces pants only. Haer which is the world leader in switch boards was 1st established to cater the Chinese domestic market. However the capacity of production at that one factory was so high that today Haer does not only cater the domestic market but also exports world over. This is the reason why China grew so much. This is also the reason why China is the world’s biggest exporter. They invested a lot of money at one single place which could produce a lot and thus they became a superpower. Thus Paul Krugman has rightly explained by giving the theorem â€Å"Production favours economies of scales† the reason why China and Japan are today economic super powers and why England is the largest producer of cloth. APPLICABILITY IN INDIA The framers of the economic and industrial policies of China and Japan have used NTT trade model to establish economies of scale to become the world’s biggest exporters and become economical super powers. Automobile companies of Japan, US, Germany are constantly researching and trying to bring innovative features to their cars. Right now these companies are in competition to make more fuel efficient and eco friendly occurs. Thus importing even when you are a major exporter of that product is now a good thing which is helping the environment. Toyota Prius will be soon imported in India. This will make companies like Honda to bring their own versions of hybrid cars. The competition will result in drop in price of Prius from an expensive 27 lakhs. NTT has also affected policies of other countries. Just as Japan and China have become economic super powers, similarly India can become superpower using policies that are derived from NTT. In the textile industry we have already established two economies of scale. However we need to create more economies of scale. TATA motors today has more than3 factories India, but its production capacity is much less than that of any of Maruti’s factory. More incentive and subsidies need to be given in India to establish more economies of scale. These economies of scale will in turn reduce capital wastage and increase production to increase economic growth. Our export capacity will also increase. To facilitate this growth the Indian Government will have to reduce freight cost by investing in transportation(roads, ports, railways). Also to increase exports the government will have to subsidise exports. The Chinese government have subsidised exports by 30%. The same products available in China are more expensive than that abroad. This was the sacrifice the Chinese people had to make for economic growth. Also imports on certain goods should be subsidised. Example- Hybrid cars This will in turn result in healthy competition and as the above example shows will result in benefit not only for country but also the worlds. There are only two drawbacks of having a NTT centred policy: 1) Growth and development will be scattered. Thus the benefits of this will not be got by all. In a country with India where the gap between village and city is already large such a policy will have to be implemented very carefully. Also investment of high capitals can get wasted in a corrupt country like ours. 2) Many companies will not be able to compete with the imported goods. This will result in loss and unemployment. Thus the government has to be careful and should also import technology when importing goods. The India government should use a NTT based policy to fulfil the goal of becoming a superpower in 2020 but will have to also make new schemes to achieve the goal of eradicating poverty by 2014. CONCLUSION The contributions of Paul Krugman are immense to developing this new trade theory. It can be said that Paul Krugman gave the heart and soul to the New Trade Theory. The New Trade Theory of Paul Krugman explains most of the problems of old theories and using it would amount to tremendous economic growth as observed in Japan and China. Paul Krugman’s theory is very good and its criticism is very less because it has very less drawbacks. The NTT is like Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations and it has already brought a revolution. However one must remember the two drawbacks of having such a policy and proceed with caution. The positives of NTT are great but it has two big negatives which become even bigger in our country and so we must proceed with caution. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Referred: †¢ Samuelson Paul Nordhaus William, Economics, 19th Edition, McGraw-Hill/Irwin †¢ Krugman Paul, Strategic Trade Policy and The New International Economics, MIT Press †¢ Mankiw N. Gregory, Principles of Economics, South Western College †¢ Krugman Paul Obstfeld Maurice, International Economics: Theory Policy, 6th Edition, Addison Wesley †¢ Krugman Paul, Rethinking International Trade, 6th Edition, The MIT Press

The Coral Reef

The Coral Reef Free Online Research Papers The marine organisms which took most interest to me were coral reefs, due to the fact I’m from the east coast and more so island oriented also that I am Haitian/Jamaican. The climate is tropical and the waters are full of coral reefs and vibrant organisms within the water. The perception is that coral reefs are not living organisms and do not really have life. According to Rob Nelson from thewildclassroom.com/biomes/coralreef.html Many biologists consider coral reefs to be more diverse and productive than their land equivalents. Corals are the only animals other than humans that are capable of building structures that can be seen by space. Mostly found in warm waters, they cannot survive in temperatures lower than 18 °C Coral reefs are the most diverse and beautiful of all marine habitats statedhttp://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/coralreef.html Coral reefs also are home to various breeds of marine life ranging from moray eels, to a hammerhead shark. They are a means of food for many of the larger prey that feed off bait fish like plankton or herring. Corals are members of the phylum Cnidaria also including jellyfish, comb jellies and sea anemones. Coral reef is not only a house center for other animals in the ocean but it is actually made from dead animals, broken rock that over time has fused together. So coral reef is actually a living recycling system The construction or birth of corals is through the process of Bio-Erosion The structure and the architecture of the reefs result from interactions between the processes of growth and erosion. Have been found to Growth and erosion of the coral reef ensue the structure of the reefs. As the coral reef is created there is also a coexisting process of destruction by physical, chemical and biological agents that are constantly at work. Because they are constantly at work the agents prevent the development of further coral reefs. The agents responsible for the erosion of the reef often are stronger together then they would be alone. Two processes involved in bioerosion are the chemical dissolution of the substrate resulting from the action of the acid substances and the mechanical abrasion of the substrate. Cyclones are destructive of the coral reef especially when the substrate is weakened by the activities of erosive organisms. During the erosion it releases dissolved CaCO3 into the envi ronment that is re-used by the productive organisms both in this form and in the particulate form which results in the production of the bioclasts which are part of the reef sedimentation resembling a recycling process There was a period in time where there likely hood of coral reef hung in the balance. El Nino, the shift in ocean currents also had an effect on global warming, which could cause major drought and floods. Mass Bleaching has also had a major impact on the lives of coral reef. Because of the rise in ocean temperatures large amounts of coral reef have been severely bleached which cause more damage while still in the healing process. Coral reefs are useful to the environment and people in numerous ways. For example, they Protect shores from the impact of waves and from storms; Provide benefits to humans in the form of food and medicine; Provide economic benefits to local communities from tourism. Also an estimate valued the world’s coral reefs at $30 billion. However human activities such as overfishing, water pollution has been the deterring factor of the 10 percent loss of coral reefs globally. Including these tragic events an additional 15 percent has been lost because of warming of the surface ocean, and the climate change which will be the catalyst factor to further destroying the reefs in times to come. These environmental features also lead to more â€Å"bleaching† of the reefs. Limestone an element produced also by coral reefs will be preserved well in geologic records. Modern coral reef organisms and communities have evolved over the past 40-55 million years.A significant coral found mostly in tropical waters is the jewel stone/jewel toe / Honeycomb Coral better known thru its scientific name Porites. The porites species is within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Cnidaria, class Anthoza, family Porittidae and genus Porites. Found mostly in the Pacific region including Fiji, Tonga and Hawaii Islands, Porites coral grows within water Seventy-two to seventy-eight degrees Fahrenheit. Porites feeding mechanism is just as other stationery plants which use the sun, through the process of photosynthesis. The Porites species also filter feeds on plankton a few times a week in the evening They can grow up to six meters then spreads. Being that it’s a nocturnal organism it doesn’t fully spread itself till night. The Porites usually come in color shades of b rown, yellow, and green. However with the exposure to UV the coral sometimes shows colors of blue, pink, and purple. When taken into human captivity the coral demands special care. Today’s reef community is living veneer over these limestone accumulations that may be tens of meters thick, According to â€Å"Pew Center on Global Climate Changes†. We as humans should appreciate the beauty of these magnificent organisms not only by viewing them, but also educating ourselves on deterring preventions. Research Papers on The Coral ReefGenetic EngineeringBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andOpen Architechture a white paperPETSTEL analysis of IndiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanThe Project Managment Office System19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Total Economic Value of a Public Park Case Study

Total Economic Value of a Public Park - Case Study Example Though it is a short project, but I had to be careful in case of collecting information and applying them properly. My lack of knowledge and shortage of information were great limitations for this work, but the Park authority helped me very much by providing disc losable information. But they didn't disclose some confidential information, which is part of their business policy. I am very grateful to our instructor who has given me the opportunity to do the project that has enriched my knowledge, skills, and practical experiences on a mentionable place of a distinctive country. OVERVIEW OF KINGS PARK: Perth City is Western Australia's central business district. Kings Park is located on the western edge of Perth. It is a 4.06 square kilometers (1003 acre) park having mixture of: Grassed parkland; Botanical gardens and Natural bush land on Mount Eliza. The streets of Kings Park are another symbol of peace. They are lined with individual plaques. The plaques are dedicated by Western Australian Service men and women's family members, who died in World War I and World War II. Other than the tourist facilities and attractive sites, Kings Park also has: The State War Memorial; The Royal Kings Park Tennis club and A reservoir. Basically, it is assumed that the Kings Park is one of the profitable Parks in Western Australia. Because according to specialists, the places, which are situated in the centre of countries or districts, are more or less seem to be profitable. Kings Park is sort of that, but in some cases it could be better. HISTORY OF KINGS PARK: Officially the Kings Park was opened on 10 August of 1895. At the beginning, it was named Perth Park. People believe that the name was like... Officially the Kings Park was opened on 10 August of 1895. At the beginning, it was named Perth Park. People believe that the name was like that by its district where it is situated. In 1901, it was renamed as Kings Park to mark the concurrence of King Edward VII and the visit to Perth of George to the British throne. May Drive, one of the major roads, was named in the Princess's honor. Kings Park’s this kind of honor is rare in Park’s history. For this reason it gained and still now gaining fame and likings of people.New York's Central Park is smaller than Kings Park in size. Though New York’s Central Park seems to be bigger than Kings Park, but actually it doesn’t. No park was designated for public use in Australia before this one (in 1872). Australia's largest wildflower show and exhibition take place in Kings Park during September to October of each year. In Australia, rarely any park has this kind of arrangements for public entertainment. By identifyi ng the land to set aside for public, General John Septimus Roe (colony's first surveyor) recognized the qualities of the area and tried to protect it from any kind of disasters. Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority does not work under any Local Government sector. Since 1999, Kings Park has been administered by that authority. They also administer Bold Park. The administration building of Kings Park provides the options where the visitors can book guided walking tours, gather information, or reserve one of the facilities.

Learning and Development of New Employees Assignment

Learning and Development of New Employees - Assignment Example An effective indicator of how much training has helped the learning process is to analyze the performance of each group within the company before and after the training period. The assessment of learning need refers to two related and sequential activities. The first need is the identification of the learning need, and secondly, it is the analysis of the learning need. The identification and analysis of the learning need to enhance the ability and performance of an individual in the team. The crux of the matter is the correct identification and analysis. In the absence of these, it is not possible to see the desired results in the employees. The needs assessment phase of a learning and development project serves a diagnostic purpose and the needs assessment phase must be done properly as it is the basis for much subsequent learning and development. If this is not done, the training cannot be properly directed and inadequately focused and the consequences may be that learners may not acquire appropriate knowledge or skill, scarce and valuable resources may be wasted, the credibility of the learning and development function may suffer, and the learning and development program will not contribute to meeting the organization's strategic objectives. Although concerned with conceptual issues, there are practical issues also since it is the assessment of needs using valid and reliable tools which is of direct concern to the learning and development practitioner on a day-to-day basis. This model must pursue a clear, balanced approach to concepts and practice. One without the other will only render the model ineffective and hypocritical. The overarching purposes of needs assessment and learning and development planning are to ensure that learning and development interventions address priority learning needs that can enable individuals, departments or organizations to meet their goals and commitments, and are aligned between the individual's goals and commitments (Training 4 Business). On the Job Needs Assessment On the job needs assessment is to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are likely to be required by a job holder. These are hierarchical task analysis, cognitive task analysis, and critical incident technique. These analysis and technique provide the trainee with a better understanding of the organization, better knowledge of the product, and ensures that the trainee is imparted necessary skills to raise performance levels.